There is much concern over water and air contamination caused by the gasoline additive, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE). MTBE is a volatile organic compound derived from natural gas that is added to gasoline. Benefits include increased octane levels and reduced carbon monoxide and ozone levels in the air. In the article, "Acute Effects of Exposure to Methyl-Tertiary-Butyl Ether in Gasoline," Rob McConnell and Robert Taber explain to the reader of the concerning health effects that are appearing in the American public. The use of MTBE raises an interesting concern that is divided between two sides: there are those who believe it is needed to keep fuel prices down and there are others who are anxious about the acute health effects that it is causing. Currently, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) tentatively classifies MTBE as a possible human carcinogen. "Oxygenated or reformulated gasoline is mandated by the Environmental Protection Agency to reduce ambient concentrations of carbon monoxide and ozone in heavily polluted areas" (McConnell 1). MTBE is now on the EPA's Drinking Water Priority List. Further, many health complaints have occurred since 1992 relating to MTBE's detrimental effects. These effects have raised questions of whether MTBE should be used in gasoline. The purpose of this essay is to examine selected scholarly articles that assess the contamination of MTBE in groundwater sources and to ascertain the detrimental health effects of the American public.

To ameliorate air quality in the United States, the Federal Clean Air Act was passed in 1990. Consequently, the petroleum and oxygenate industries reacted by offering a reformulated gasoline program as a substitute for most of the alternate fuel proposals. Therefore, the amendments to the Federal Clean Air Act adopted in 1990 required steps to achieve lower vehicle emissions, including programs to oxygenate and reformulate gasoline. By reducing carbon monoxide emissions, oxygenated gasoline increases the combustion efficiency of gasoline. Since January 1995, the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments require areas that have the most severe ozone pollution to use reformulated gasoline containing fuel oxygenates to improve air quality. MTBE is one of the most commonly used fuel oxygenates because it is produced in very large amounts from isobutylene, a waste product in the refining process. MTBE can be easily produced at the refinery, at a low cost, and be transferred through existing pipelines once it has been blended with gasoline. In the article "United States Experience with Gasoline Additives," Farhad Nadim, Peter Zack, George E.Hoag,and Shili Liu support the air quality benefits of MTBE: "In Los Angeles, use of oxygenated gasoline was able to reduce the ground levels of ozone by 18% during the 1996 smog season. . ." (Nadim et. al. 4). In contrast with air quality benefits, MTBE is a member of a class of chemical compounds, ethers, whose particular properties are improved solubility in water and chemical attraction to water molecules. Moreover, these properties, along with widespread use of MTBE, result in frequent detection of MTBE in samples of shallow groundwater from urban areas throughout the United States (EPA 3). MTBE moves quickly to shallow groundwater because it is not attached to soil particles, and it is chemically attracted to water molecules making it susceptible to the contamination of groundwater sources.

Due to its mobility, MTBE has the capability of impacting regional groundwater sources resulting in a contamination hazard. The MTBE Remediation Handbook suggests that MTBE be removed from gasoline because its potential ability to contaminate the groundwater: "…drinking water health advisories may provide information on contaminants that can cause human health effects and are known or anticipated to occur in drinking water (USEPA, 2000e)" (Moyer 3). On the other hand, Matthew Lahvis, Arthur Baker, and Ronald Baker, the authors of "Evaluation of Volatilization as a Natural Attenuation Pathway for MTBE," argue that MTBE does not pose as a serious threat to health: "Results of the model simulations indicate the volatilization of MTBE from ground water is negligible, even under conditions extremely favorable for volatilization" (Lahvis et. al. 265). The United State Geological Survey, in a paper presented to the American Chemical Society in San Francisco in April 1997, noted the MTBE can move from shallow to deeper aquifers with time. MTBE enters the environment, and eventually the groundwater in various ways: leaking underground storage tanks (USTs) and associated piping, incomplete combustion in internal combustion engines spilling, evaporation during transportation and refueling, and watercraft exhaust. The Environmental Protection Agency has issued a drinking water advisory of 20-40 micrograms per liter, based upon odor and taste threshold, and to provide a large margin of safety from carcinogenic effects (EPA 3). Moreover, the California Department of Health Services has required public water suppliers to monitor their drinking water sources for MTBE since February 1997. As of December 1997, about 23% of drinking water sources in California had been sampled for MTBE contamination. Of those sites tested, 33 or 1.3%, had detectable levels of MTBE (Moyer 3). Of the contaminated sites tested, 36% had MTBE levels above the state's proposed drinking water standard. Research has shown that the frequency of impact of MTBE contamination to public drinking wells indicates evidence of health concerns to the American public.

While some argue that MTBE contributes to the economy by reducing exhaust emissions and reducing fuel cost, others believe it is harmful to the health of the general public: "MTBE, an award-winning additive that has proved to reduce air pollution from gasoline combustion, has been demonized through a coordinated effort by American plaintiffs' lawyers, commercial competitors who claim that the additive pollutes groundwater when it leaks from underground storage tanks (USTs)" (Speelman 1). This ongoing controversy has sparked many concerns regarding the actual need for MTBE. Specific cases have proven that MTBE is harmful to the environment and hazardous to the health of the American Public. A. C. Davenport, T. J. Glynn, and H. Rhambarose, the authors of "Coast Guard Exposure to Gasoline, MTBE, and Benzene Vapors During Inspection of Tank Barges" are against the use of MTBE. These authors share similar views with McConnell, Taber, and Speelman. They all agree that MTBE has caused much concern in the particular interest to USCG health and safety professionals: "Due to a recent rise in health concerns associated with exposure to methyl-tert butyl ether (MTBE, a common gasoline additive) this commodity also was identified as a chemical of interest in this study" (Davenport 1). Ongoing research is supporting the health risks caused by MTBE.

The Clean Air Act Amendment of 1990 requires that gasoline must contain an increased amount of oxygen. This reformulated gasoline must contain two percent oxygen, by weight and must be used whether seasonally or year round in gasoline in certain parts of the U.S. where concentrations of ozone in the summer or carbon monoxide in the winter exceed the established air quality standards. MTBE is used in portions of 17 states and the District of Columbia. This reformulated gasoline is noted for producing significantly reduced numbers in carbon monoxide emissions and for reducing the volatile organic compounds that react with pollutants to form smog. MTBE is commonly used as an oxygenate because of its low cost, simplicity of production, and favorable transfer and blending characteristics. While McConnell, Taber, and Speelman agree that MTBE is hazardous to the health of the American public, Kerry Rock, Robert Dun, and Donald Makovec, the authors of "Automotive Fuels for an Improved Environment," seem to think differently. They believe that MTBE is making significant contributions towards the gasoline industry: "The use of MTBE as a gasoline blend stock answers many of today's issues at the same time. MTBE has a high blending octane number. It can satisfy the octane demands that originally caused refiners to turn to butane, aromatics and olefins" (Rock 6). Over the last few years, incidents of contamination in water, soil, and air have lead many environmentalist, legislators, and the public to question whether it's harmful effects outweigh its beneficial effects.

MTBE is released into the air from sources such as industry and vehicles. According to the United States Government, studies done by the Centers for Disease Control prevention have shown that the concentrations of MTBE in blood is related to the concentration of MTBE in the air: "The state of California has recently undertaken a review of studies of acute symptomatic effects of MTBE, and of the possible carcinogenic and other effects of MTBE in air and in ground water" (McConnell 1). MTBE volatizes rapidly from soil surfaces and can move into groundwater. Once in groundwater, MTBE resists decay. People who are living in an area designated by the EPA as an Ozone Non-Attainment Area (where MTBE is detected in drinking water, ground water, and soil) can be exposed to MTBE. Also, people are exposed to MTBE when refueling their vehicles and when driving during congested or heavy traffic. Other people that are very likely to have health problems because of MTBE are gas station attendants, mechanics, auto salvage strippers, refinery workers, pipeline workers, and tanker divers with prolonged exposure to reformulated gasoline (Nadim et. al. 4). Acute health effects of MTBE are irritating to mucous membranes and respiratory tract, eyes, nose, and skin. Inhalation may be fatal at times as a result of spasm, inflammation and edema of the larynx and bronchi, chemical pneumonia and pulmonary edema (McConnell 1). It also causes coughing, chest pains, breathing problems, extreme headaches, fever, muscle aches, sleepiness, disorientation, nausea, vomiting, dizziness and diarrhea. Chronic effects of MTBE are cancer in the kidneys and liver, uterine tumors, leukemia, and lymphomas. According to McConnell and Taber, MTBE has recently been found to be mutagenic. All of these symptoms and effects have many citizens, environmentalists, and legislators concerned about the use of MTBE in reformulated gasoline.

McConnell, Taber, and Speelman strongly believe that having MTBE in gasoline is detrimental for society and should be removed as soon as possible. They also believe that in order for adequate assurance of quality drinking water and air conditions, changes need to be made to the reformulated gasoline program to reduce the amount of MTBE being produced while ensuring that the air quality benefits of reformulated gasoline. First, they argue that MTBE should be eliminated from gasoline by a federal government mandate to the EPA banning its use in gasoline and declare MTBE a human carcinogen. Secondly, they agree that an alternative form of an oxygenate, such as ethanol, should be used to replace MTBE in order to comply with the Clean Air Act Amendment in 1990, producing a cleaner burning fuel that improves air quality and reduces emission of carbon monoxide and benzene. Finally, the EPA should work with Congress to expand resources for funding the treatment of drinking water supplies previously contaminated with MTBE and other gasoline components, provide a safe alternative water supply, and compensate individuals injured by MTBE. They all conclude that until these actions are put in effect, the health of the people of America will remain disturbed by MTBE's harmful effects.

Davenport, A. C., T. J. Glynn, and H. Rhambarose. "Coast Guard Exposure to Gasoline, MTBE, and Benzene Vapors During Inspection or Tank Barges." AIHAJ 61.6 (2000): 865-73.

Lahvis, Matthew A., Arthur L. Baehr, and Ronald J. Baker. "Evaluation of Volatilization as a Natural Attenuation Pathway for MTBE." Groundwater 42.2 (2004): 258-68.

McConnell, Rob and Robert Taber. "Acute Effects of Exposure to Methyl-Tert-Butyl Ether in Gasoline." Western Journal of Medicine 169.6 (1998): 375.

Moyer, Ellen E. and Paul T. Kostecki, ed. MTBE Remediation Handbook. Amherst: Amherst Scientific Publishers, 2003.

Nadim, Farhad, Peter Zack, George E. Hoagi, and Shili Liu. "United States Experience with Gasoline Additives." Energy Policy 29.1 (2001): 1-5.

Rock, Kerry L., Robert O. Dunn, and Donald J. Makovec. Automotive Fuels for an Improved Environment: How Does MTBE Contribute? Washington, D. C.: National Petroleum Refiners Association, 1991.

Speelman, Joseph F. "the MTBE Controversy: Defending Mass Tort Claims." Defense Counsel Journal 69.1 (2002): 35-50.

United States. Environmental Protection Agency. Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE). 17 Sept. 2003. 10 Oct. 2004 <http://www.epa.gov/mtbe/.html>>.

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